organic compounds
2-[2-(3-Methoxyphenyl)-2-oxoethyl]-1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxide
aInstitute of Chemistry, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan, bInstitute of Biochemistry, University of Baluchistan, Quetta 8700, Pakistan, and cDepartment of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
*Correspondence e-mail: drhamidlatif@yahoo.com
In the title compound, C16H13NO5S, the benzothiazole unit is essentially planar [maximum deviation = 0.0501 (10) Å for the S atom] and is oriented at a dihedral angle of 67.85 (5)° with respect to the methoxy-substituted benzene ring. The mean plane of the methoxy group is oriented at 14.3 (3)° with respect to the benzene ring to which it is attached. In the weak C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds form macrocyclic rings with R22(10) and R22(12) motifs.
Related literature
For the use of 1,2-benzisothiazoline-3-one 1,1-dioxide (saccharine) as an intermediate in the preparation of medicinally important molecules, see: Siddiqui et al. (2006); Zia-ur-Rehman et al. (2005, 2009). For the biological activity of saccharine, see: Singh et al. (2007); Vaccarino et al. (2007); Kapui et al. (2003). For related structures, see: Ahmad et al. (2008, 2009). For hydrogen-bonding motifs, see: Bernstein et al. (1995).
Experimental
Crystal data
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Refinement
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Data collection: COLLECT (Nonius, 1998); cell HKL DENZO (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997); data reduction: SCALEPACK (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997); program(s) used to solve structure: SHELXS97 (Sheldrick, 2008); program(s) used to refine structure: SHELXL97 (Sheldrick, 2008); molecular graphics: ORTEP-3 for Windows (Farrugia, 1997); software used to prepare material for publication: SHELXL97.
Supporting information
10.1107/S160053681000543X/lh2991sup1.cif
contains datablocks global, I. DOI:Structure factors: contains datablock I. DOI: 10.1107/S160053681000543X/lh2991Isup2.hkl
3-Methoxy phenacyl bromide (5.49 g, 0.024 mol) was slowly added to a suspension of sodium saccharine (5 g, 0.024 mol) in dimethylformamide (15 ml) and the mixture was stirred at 383 K for 3.0 hours under anhydrous conditions. On completion of reaction (indicated by tlc), the mixture was poured on crushed ice and the precipitates formed were filtered and washed with an excess of distilled water and cold ethanol respectively. Crystals suitable for diffraction were grown from a solution of (I) in chloroform–methanol (3:1).
All H atoms were located from the difference Fourier maps and were included in the refinements at geometrically idealized positions with C—H distances = 0.95, 0.98 and 0.99 Å for aryl, methyl and methylene H atoms, respectively, and Uiso = 1.2 times Ueq of the C atoms to which they were bonded. The final difference map was free of chemically significant features.
Data collection: COLLECT (Nonius, 1998); cell
HKL DENZO (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997); data reduction: SCALEPACK (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997); program(s) used to solve structure: SHELXS97 (Sheldrick, 2008); program(s) used to refine structure: SHELXL97 (Sheldrick, 2008); molecular graphics: ORTEP-3 for Windows (Farrugia, 1997); software used to prepare material for publication: SHELXL97 (Sheldrick, 2008).C16H13NO5S | F(000) = 688 |
Mr = 331.33 | Dx = 1.474 Mg m−3 |
Monoclinic, P21/n | Melting point: 446 K |
Hall symbol: -P 2yn | Mo Kα radiation, λ = 0.71073 Å |
a = 8.9824 (3) Å | Cell parameters from 3447 reflections |
b = 8.5801 (4) Å | θ = 1.0–27.5° |
c = 19.5645 (7) Å | µ = 0.24 mm−1 |
β = 97.942 (2)° | T = 173 K |
V = 1493.37 (10) Å3 | Prism, white |
Z = 4 | 0.14 × 0.12 × 0.10 mm |
Nonius APEX2 CCD diffractometer | 3399 independent reflections |
Radiation source: fine-focus sealed tube | 2897 reflections with I > 2σ(I) |
Graphite monochromator | Rint = 0.027 |
ϕ and ω scans | θmax = 27.5°, θmin = 2.6° |
Absorption correction: multi-scan (SORTAV; Blessing, 1997) | h = −11→11 |
Tmin = 0.967, Tmax = 0.976 | k = −11→11 |
15084 measured reflections | l = −25→25 |
Refinement on F2 | Primary atom site location: structure-invariant direct methods |
Least-squares matrix: full | Secondary atom site location: difference Fourier map |
R[F2 > 2σ(F2)] = 0.046 | Hydrogen site location: inferred from neighbouring sites |
wR(F2) = 0.136 | H-atom parameters constrained |
S = 1.06 | w = 1/[σ2(Fo2) + (0.0682P)2 + 1.0411P] where P = (Fo2 + 2Fc2)/3 |
3399 reflections | (Δ/σ)max = 0.001 |
209 parameters | Δρmax = 0.34 e Å−3 |
0 restraints | Δρmin = −0.37 e Å−3 |
C16H13NO5S | V = 1493.37 (10) Å3 |
Mr = 331.33 | Z = 4 |
Monoclinic, P21/n | Mo Kα radiation |
a = 8.9824 (3) Å | µ = 0.24 mm−1 |
b = 8.5801 (4) Å | T = 173 K |
c = 19.5645 (7) Å | 0.14 × 0.12 × 0.10 mm |
β = 97.942 (2)° |
Nonius APEX2 CCD diffractometer | 3399 independent reflections |
Absorption correction: multi-scan (SORTAV; Blessing, 1997) | 2897 reflections with I > 2σ(I) |
Tmin = 0.967, Tmax = 0.976 | Rint = 0.027 |
15084 measured reflections |
R[F2 > 2σ(F2)] = 0.046 | 0 restraints |
wR(F2) = 0.136 | H-atom parameters constrained |
S = 1.06 | Δρmax = 0.34 e Å−3 |
3399 reflections | Δρmin = −0.37 e Å−3 |
209 parameters |
Geometry. All esds (except the esd in the dihedral angle between two l.s. planes) are estimated using the full covariance matrix. The cell esds are taken into account individually in the estimation of esds in distances, angles and torsion angles; correlations between esds in cell parameters are only used when they are defined by crystal symmetry. An approximate (isotropic) treatment of cell esds is used for estimating esds involving l.s. planes. |
x | y | z | Uiso*/Ueq | ||
S1 | 0.22107 (5) | 0.29868 (6) | 0.10828 (2) | 0.02685 (16) | |
O1 | 0.03462 (17) | −0.00650 (19) | 0.20389 (8) | 0.0382 (4) | |
O2 | 0.21767 (18) | 0.45904 (18) | 0.12764 (8) | 0.0368 (4) | |
O3 | 0.35116 (16) | 0.2458 (2) | 0.08049 (8) | 0.0391 (4) | |
O4 | 0.36297 (18) | −0.07414 (19) | 0.17637 (8) | 0.0417 (4) | |
O5 | 0.79500 (17) | 0.2056 (2) | 0.39967 (9) | 0.0431 (4) | |
N1 | 0.19250 (18) | 0.1858 (2) | 0.17480 (9) | 0.0284 (4) | |
C1 | 0.0523 (2) | 0.2394 (2) | 0.05901 (10) | 0.0270 (4) | |
C2 | −0.0056 (3) | 0.2914 (3) | −0.00668 (11) | 0.0332 (5) | |
H2 | 0.0427 | 0.3702 | −0.0297 | 0.040* | |
C3 | −0.1387 (3) | 0.2208 (3) | −0.03674 (12) | 0.0389 (5) | |
H3 | −0.1832 | 0.2531 | −0.0814 | 0.047* | |
C4 | −0.2074 (2) | 0.1051 (3) | −0.00311 (12) | 0.0398 (5) | |
H4 | −0.2966 | 0.0577 | −0.0256 | 0.048* | |
C5 | −0.1486 (2) | 0.0565 (3) | 0.06313 (12) | 0.0355 (5) | |
H5 | −0.1971 | −0.0217 | 0.0865 | 0.043* | |
C6 | −0.0165 (2) | 0.1264 (2) | 0.09381 (10) | 0.0283 (4) | |
C7 | 0.0673 (2) | 0.0893 (2) | 0.16294 (10) | 0.0285 (4) | |
C8 | 0.3125 (2) | 0.1633 (2) | 0.23198 (10) | 0.0283 (4) | |
H8A | 0.2684 | 0.1527 | 0.2754 | 0.034* | |
H8B | 0.3787 | 0.2561 | 0.2363 | 0.034* | |
C9 | 0.4060 (2) | 0.0187 (2) | 0.22173 (10) | 0.0288 (4) | |
C10 | 0.5481 (2) | −0.0057 (2) | 0.27013 (10) | 0.0264 (4) | |
C11 | 0.6073 (2) | 0.1091 (2) | 0.31602 (10) | 0.0282 (4) | |
H11 | 0.5553 | 0.2048 | 0.3187 | 0.034* | |
C12 | 0.7438 (2) | 0.0836 (3) | 0.35828 (10) | 0.0313 (4) | |
C13 | 0.8174 (2) | −0.0582 (3) | 0.35630 (11) | 0.0403 (6) | |
H13 | 0.9093 | −0.0765 | 0.3856 | 0.048* | |
C14 | 0.7554 (3) | −0.1730 (3) | 0.31103 (12) | 0.0422 (6) | |
H14 | 0.8052 | −0.2705 | 0.3101 | 0.051* | |
C15 | 0.6230 (3) | −0.1486 (3) | 0.26732 (11) | 0.0353 (5) | |
H15 | 0.5833 | −0.2273 | 0.2359 | 0.042* | |
C16 | 0.9474 (3) | 0.2006 (4) | 0.43204 (13) | 0.0506 (7) | |
H16A | 0.9728 | 0.2990 | 0.4563 | 0.061* | |
H16B | 1.0139 | 0.1849 | 0.3969 | 0.061* | |
H16C | 0.9601 | 0.1143 | 0.4652 | 0.061* |
U11 | U22 | U33 | U12 | U13 | U23 | |
S1 | 0.0282 (3) | 0.0253 (3) | 0.0253 (2) | −0.00364 (18) | −0.00269 (18) | 0.00023 (18) |
O1 | 0.0353 (8) | 0.0327 (8) | 0.0443 (8) | −0.0046 (6) | −0.0030 (7) | 0.0125 (7) |
O2 | 0.0499 (9) | 0.0246 (8) | 0.0336 (7) | −0.0070 (7) | −0.0030 (7) | −0.0014 (6) |
O3 | 0.0301 (7) | 0.0489 (10) | 0.0378 (8) | −0.0030 (7) | 0.0034 (6) | −0.0015 (7) |
O4 | 0.0422 (9) | 0.0365 (9) | 0.0421 (9) | 0.0039 (7) | −0.0096 (7) | −0.0122 (7) |
O5 | 0.0274 (8) | 0.0521 (11) | 0.0451 (9) | 0.0011 (7) | −0.0117 (7) | −0.0092 (8) |
N1 | 0.0269 (8) | 0.0274 (9) | 0.0282 (8) | −0.0031 (7) | −0.0056 (7) | 0.0039 (7) |
C1 | 0.0284 (9) | 0.0232 (9) | 0.0270 (9) | 0.0035 (8) | −0.0046 (7) | −0.0029 (7) |
C2 | 0.0395 (11) | 0.0298 (11) | 0.0278 (10) | 0.0037 (9) | −0.0045 (8) | −0.0011 (8) |
C3 | 0.0428 (12) | 0.0342 (12) | 0.0340 (11) | 0.0091 (10) | −0.0145 (9) | −0.0054 (9) |
C4 | 0.0314 (10) | 0.0313 (12) | 0.0505 (13) | 0.0060 (9) | −0.0164 (9) | −0.0091 (10) |
C5 | 0.0273 (10) | 0.0269 (11) | 0.0483 (12) | 0.0001 (8) | −0.0080 (9) | −0.0007 (9) |
C6 | 0.0266 (9) | 0.0214 (10) | 0.0343 (10) | 0.0016 (7) | −0.0055 (8) | 0.0007 (8) |
C7 | 0.0259 (9) | 0.0228 (9) | 0.0346 (10) | 0.0002 (7) | −0.0031 (8) | 0.0020 (8) |
C8 | 0.0276 (9) | 0.0289 (10) | 0.0253 (9) | 0.0032 (8) | −0.0068 (7) | −0.0002 (8) |
C9 | 0.0296 (10) | 0.0276 (10) | 0.0278 (9) | −0.0004 (8) | −0.0009 (8) | −0.0008 (8) |
C10 | 0.0266 (9) | 0.0270 (10) | 0.0254 (9) | 0.0008 (7) | 0.0031 (7) | 0.0019 (7) |
C11 | 0.0238 (9) | 0.0302 (11) | 0.0299 (9) | 0.0026 (8) | 0.0007 (7) | 0.0010 (8) |
C12 | 0.0236 (9) | 0.0417 (12) | 0.0280 (9) | 0.0020 (8) | 0.0011 (8) | 0.0021 (9) |
C13 | 0.0283 (10) | 0.0580 (15) | 0.0335 (11) | 0.0155 (10) | 0.0005 (9) | 0.0051 (10) |
C14 | 0.0399 (12) | 0.0450 (14) | 0.0416 (12) | 0.0209 (11) | 0.0051 (10) | 0.0012 (10) |
C15 | 0.0396 (11) | 0.0324 (11) | 0.0341 (10) | 0.0086 (9) | 0.0053 (9) | −0.0009 (9) |
C16 | 0.0268 (11) | 0.080 (2) | 0.0413 (12) | −0.0054 (11) | −0.0093 (9) | 0.0013 (13) |
S1—O2 | 1.4286 (16) | C5—H5 | 0.9500 |
S1—O3 | 1.4291 (16) | C6—C7 | 1.489 (3) |
S1—N1 | 1.6701 (17) | C8—C9 | 1.527 (3) |
S1—C1 | 1.7555 (19) | C8—H8A | 0.9900 |
O1—C7 | 1.212 (2) | C8—H8B | 0.9900 |
O4—C9 | 1.215 (2) | C9—C10 | 1.496 (3) |
O5—C12 | 1.364 (3) | C10—C11 | 1.389 (3) |
O5—C16 | 1.427 (3) | C10—C15 | 1.403 (3) |
N1—C7 | 1.390 (3) | C11—C12 | 1.398 (3) |
N1—C8 | 1.455 (2) | C11—H11 | 0.9500 |
C1—C6 | 1.379 (3) | C12—C13 | 1.388 (3) |
C1—C2 | 1.391 (3) | C13—C14 | 1.388 (4) |
C2—C3 | 1.396 (3) | C13—H13 | 0.9500 |
C2—H2 | 0.9500 | C14—C15 | 1.382 (3) |
C3—C4 | 1.383 (4) | C14—H14 | 0.9500 |
C3—H3 | 0.9500 | C15—H15 | 0.9500 |
C4—C5 | 1.394 (3) | C16—H16A | 0.9800 |
C4—H4 | 0.9500 | C16—H16B | 0.9800 |
C5—C6 | 1.390 (3) | C16—H16C | 0.9800 |
O2—S1—O3 | 117.07 (10) | N1—C8—H8A | 109.3 |
O2—S1—N1 | 109.91 (9) | C9—C8—H8A | 109.3 |
O3—S1—N1 | 109.52 (9) | N1—C8—H8B | 109.3 |
O2—S1—C1 | 112.10 (9) | C9—C8—H8B | 109.3 |
O3—S1—C1 | 112.87 (9) | H8A—C8—H8B | 107.9 |
N1—S1—C1 | 92.63 (9) | O4—C9—C10 | 121.86 (19) |
C12—O5—C16 | 117.68 (19) | O4—C9—C8 | 120.25 (17) |
C7—N1—C8 | 123.05 (17) | C10—C9—C8 | 117.87 (16) |
C7—N1—S1 | 115.04 (13) | C11—C10—C15 | 120.17 (19) |
C8—N1—S1 | 119.92 (14) | C11—C10—C9 | 121.80 (18) |
C6—C1—C2 | 123.07 (19) | C15—C10—C9 | 118.02 (18) |
C6—C1—S1 | 110.15 (14) | C10—C11—C12 | 119.80 (19) |
C2—C1—S1 | 126.75 (17) | C10—C11—H11 | 120.1 |
C1—C2—C3 | 116.1 (2) | C12—C11—H11 | 120.1 |
C1—C2—H2 | 122.0 | O5—C12—C13 | 124.50 (19) |
C3—C2—H2 | 122.0 | O5—C12—C11 | 115.27 (19) |
C4—C3—C2 | 121.6 (2) | C13—C12—C11 | 120.2 (2) |
C4—C3—H3 | 119.2 | C12—C13—C14 | 119.2 (2) |
C2—C3—H3 | 119.2 | C12—C13—H13 | 120.4 |
C3—C4—C5 | 121.4 (2) | C14—C13—H13 | 120.4 |
C3—C4—H4 | 119.3 | C15—C14—C13 | 121.5 (2) |
C5—C4—H4 | 119.3 | C15—C14—H14 | 119.2 |
C6—C5—C4 | 117.6 (2) | C13—C14—H14 | 119.2 |
C6—C5—H5 | 121.2 | C14—C15—C10 | 119.0 (2) |
C4—C5—H5 | 121.2 | C14—C15—H15 | 120.5 |
C1—C6—C5 | 120.31 (19) | C10—C15—H15 | 120.5 |
C1—C6—C7 | 113.22 (17) | O5—C16—H16A | 109.5 |
C5—C6—C7 | 126.45 (19) | O5—C16—H16B | 109.5 |
O1—C7—N1 | 123.93 (18) | H16A—C16—H16B | 109.5 |
O1—C7—C6 | 127.41 (18) | O5—C16—H16C | 109.5 |
N1—C7—C6 | 108.65 (17) | H16A—C16—H16C | 109.5 |
N1—C8—C9 | 111.66 (16) | H16B—C16—H16C | 109.5 |
O2—S1—N1—C7 | 120.14 (16) | S1—N1—C7—C6 | −5.4 (2) |
O3—S1—N1—C7 | −109.92 (16) | C1—C6—C7—O1 | −178.6 (2) |
C1—S1—N1—C7 | 5.48 (16) | C5—C6—C7—O1 | −0.4 (4) |
O2—S1—N1—C8 | −75.42 (17) | C1—C6—C7—N1 | 2.3 (2) |
O3—S1—N1—C8 | 54.52 (17) | C5—C6—C7—N1 | −179.5 (2) |
C1—S1—N1—C8 | 169.92 (16) | C7—N1—C8—C9 | 70.4 (2) |
O2—S1—C1—C6 | −116.57 (15) | S1—N1—C8—C9 | −92.72 (19) |
O3—S1—C1—C6 | 108.65 (16) | N1—C8—C9—O4 | −11.3 (3) |
N1—S1—C1—C6 | −3.83 (16) | N1—C8—C9—C10 | 170.25 (17) |
O2—S1—C1—C2 | 65.5 (2) | O4—C9—C10—C11 | 171.5 (2) |
O3—S1—C1—C2 | −69.3 (2) | C8—C9—C10—C11 | −10.0 (3) |
N1—S1—C1—C2 | 178.3 (2) | O4—C9—C10—C15 | −7.4 (3) |
C6—C1—C2—C3 | −0.7 (3) | C8—C9—C10—C15 | 171.06 (19) |
S1—C1—C2—C3 | 176.93 (17) | C15—C10—C11—C12 | 1.6 (3) |
C1—C2—C3—C4 | −0.6 (3) | C9—C10—C11—C12 | −177.32 (18) |
C2—C3—C4—C5 | 1.6 (4) | C16—O5—C12—C13 | 13.8 (3) |
C3—C4—C5—C6 | −1.2 (3) | C16—O5—C12—C11 | −166.2 (2) |
C2—C1—C6—C5 | 1.1 (3) | C10—C11—C12—O5 | 177.70 (18) |
S1—C1—C6—C5 | −176.85 (17) | C10—C11—C12—C13 | −2.3 (3) |
C2—C1—C6—C7 | 179.45 (19) | O5—C12—C13—C14 | −178.9 (2) |
S1—C1—C6—C7 | 1.4 (2) | C11—C12—C13—C14 | 1.2 (3) |
C4—C5—C6—C1 | −0.2 (3) | C12—C13—C14—C15 | 0.8 (4) |
C4—C5—C6—C7 | −178.2 (2) | C13—C14—C15—C10 | −1.5 (4) |
C8—N1—C7—O1 | 11.6 (3) | C11—C10—C15—C14 | 0.3 (3) |
S1—N1—C7—O1 | 175.52 (17) | C9—C10—C15—C14 | 179.3 (2) |
C8—N1—C7—C6 | −169.29 (17) |
D—H···A | D—H | H···A | D···A | D—H···A |
C5—H5···O5i | 0.95 | 2.53 | 3.404 (3) | 153 |
C8—H8B···O1ii | 0.99 | 2.42 | 3.318 (3) | 150 |
C8—H8A···O2i | 0.99 | 2.51 | 3.301 (3) | 137 |
Symmetry codes: (i) −x+1/2, y−1/2, −z+1/2; (ii) −x+1/2, y+1/2, −z+1/2. |
Experimental details
Crystal data | |
Chemical formula | C16H13NO5S |
Mr | 331.33 |
Crystal system, space group | Monoclinic, P21/n |
Temperature (K) | 173 |
a, b, c (Å) | 8.9824 (3), 8.5801 (4), 19.5645 (7) |
β (°) | 97.942 (2) |
V (Å3) | 1493.37 (10) |
Z | 4 |
Radiation type | Mo Kα |
µ (mm−1) | 0.24 |
Crystal size (mm) | 0.14 × 0.12 × 0.10 |
Data collection | |
Diffractometer | Nonius APEX2 CCD diffractometer |
Absorption correction | Multi-scan (SORTAV; Blessing, 1997) |
Tmin, Tmax | 0.967, 0.976 |
No. of measured, independent and observed [I > 2σ(I)] reflections | 15084, 3399, 2897 |
Rint | 0.027 |
(sin θ/λ)max (Å−1) | 0.650 |
Refinement | |
R[F2 > 2σ(F2)], wR(F2), S | 0.046, 0.136, 1.06 |
No. of reflections | 3399 |
No. of parameters | 209 |
H-atom treatment | H-atom parameters constrained |
Δρmax, Δρmin (e Å−3) | 0.34, −0.37 |
Computer programs: COLLECT (Nonius, 1998), HKL DENZO (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997), SCALEPACK (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997), SHELXS97 (Sheldrick, 2008), SHELXL97 (Sheldrick, 2008), ORTEP-3 for Windows (Farrugia, 1997).
D—H···A | D—H | H···A | D···A | D—H···A |
C5—H5···O5i | 0.95 | 2.53 | 3.404 (3) | 153 |
C8—H8B···O1ii | 0.99 | 2.42 | 3.318 (3) | 150 |
C8—H8A···O2i | 0.99 | 2.51 | 3.301 (3) | 137 |
Symmetry codes: (i) −x+1/2, y−1/2, −z+1/2; (ii) −x+1/2, y+1/2, −z+1/2. |
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for financial support of this research.
References
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1,2-Benzisothiazoline-3-one 1,1-dioxide (saccharine) is an important starting material for the synthesis of different heterocyclic compounds and plays a role as an intermediate for the preparation of medicinally important molecules (Siddiqui et al., 2006; Zia-ur-Rehman et al., 2009). Various derivatives of saccharin are known to be cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors (Singh et al., 2007), analgesic (Vaccarino et al., 2007), human leucocyte elastase (HLE) inhibitors (Kapui et al., 2003) etc. In continuation of our research on the synthesis of potential biologically active derivatives of benzothiazines (Ahmad et al., 2008; Ahmad et al., 2009), we herein report the crystal structure of the title compound, N-(3-methoxyphenacyl)saccharin, (I).
The structure of (I) contains discrete molecules separated by normal van der Waals distances (Fig. 1). The benzothiazole moiety (S1/N1/C1–C7) is essentially planar (maximum deviation = 0.0501 (10) Å for atom S1) and lies at an angle 67.85 (5)° with respect to the benzene ring ). The methoxy group is oriented at 14.3 (3)° with respect to the benzene ring (C10–C15). The structure is devoid of any classical hydrogen bonds. However, non-classical hydrogen bonding interactions of the type C—H···O are present in the crystal structure resulting in ten and twelve membered macrocyclic rings in R22(10) and R22(12) motifs (Bernstein et al., 1995) (Fig. 2 and Table 1).